The Climate Adjustment Tool allows engineers and planners to evaluate the performance of water infrastructure while considering future climate change projections, such as more frequent high-intensity storms and changes in evaporation rates of seasonal precipitation, to determine the benefits of resiliency decisions to reduce local economic burden and protect communities.
“Climate change means increased risks to our health, our economy, and our environment,” said EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy. “But with the President’s Climate Action Plan, the agency is taking action to advance science-based technology, such as the addition of the Climate Adjustment Tool, to help state and local planners combat the impacts of climate change, especially significant economic burden from severe weather, and protect communities through sustainability and resiliency measures.”
The new tool will enable users to add climate projections based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s climate change scenarios to existing simulations to determine the quality of water traveling through traditional infrastructure—a system of gutters, storm drains, pipes, channels, collection tanks, and storage devices. The tool also has the ability to model the performance of green infrastructure practices, including permeable pavement, rain gardens, and green roofs.
Stormwater runoff is a major environmental problem resulting in flooding, erosion, and contaminated waters. Every year billions of gallons of raw sewage, trash, household chemicals, fertilizers, and urban runoff flow into our streams, rivers, and lakes. Polluted stormwater runoff can adversely affect plants, animals, and people.
EPA’s Stormwater Management Model is used throughout the world for stormwater runoff reduction planning, analysis, and design of combined and sanitary sewers, and other drainage systems. Originally released decades ago, SWMM is now used in thousands of communities throughout the world, including as the core modeling engine in cities such as Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, and Seattle.
To assist community planners and managers in determining resiliency and sustainability actions that will help protect against extreme weather and reduce the local economic burden after a natural disaster, EPA has developed additional tools, including:
a tool that can be used by homeowners, landscapers, and developers to estimate the amount of rainwater and frequency of runoff on a specific site based on local soil conditions, land cover, historic rainfall records, and climate change scenarios.
EPA’s Climate Resilience Evaluation and Awareness Tool () – a tool that assists drinking water and wastewater utility owners and operators understand potential climate change threats and assess the related risks.
Learn DOT’s New Rules for Lithium Battery Shipments
- Enhance packaging and hazard communication requirements for lithium batteries transported by air
- Replace equivalent lithium content with Watt-hours for lithium ion cells and batteries
- Adopt separate shipping descriptions for lithium metal batteries and lithium ion batteries
- Revise provisions for the transport of small and medium lithium cells and batteries including cells and batteries packed with, or contained in, equipment
- Revise the exceptions for small cells and batteries in air transportation
- Revise the requirements for the transport of lithium batteries for disposal or recycling
- Harmonize the provisions for the transport of low production and prototype lithium cells and batteries with the ICAO Technical Instructions and the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code
- Adopt new provisions for the transport of damaged, defective, and recalled lithium batteries
If you ship batteries by ground or air, you must comply with the latest DOT and IATA/ICAO regulations that specify how the batteries must be packaged, marked, labeled, and transported. The rules apply not only to batteries, but also to equipment or vehicles that contain batteries as well as batteries packed along with equipment. Virtually all types of batteries are regulated, including lithium, lead-acid, nickel cadmium, and metal hydride alkaline. According to 49 CFR 172.704, all personnel involved in the classification, packaging, marking, labeling, or shipment of batteries must receive initial and recurrent transportation training.
Kansas City RCRA and DOT Training
Charlotte RCRA and DOT Training
Houston RCRA and DOT Training
New Insight Into How Rubber Is Made Could Improve Tires, Reduce Air Pollution
Their findings, if used to improve tire performance, for example, could mean higher gas mileage for consumers and less air pollution.
Yuko Ikeda and colleagues note that a chemical process called vulcanization has been critical for the manufacturing of quality rubber since the second half of the 1800s. Chemists have improved the process, but progress has largely plateaued in recent years. If scientists could gain insight into the details of vulcanization, they could further tweak it to make even better rubber. Ikeda’s team set out to uncover a key step in this process.
Using the latest analytical techniques, the researchers discovered a previously unknown structure that forms during vulcanization. The new observation could contribute to making the ubiquitous material even better. For the auto industry, resulting improvements in tire performance could translate to fuel savings and lower emissions, the researchers say.
New Hampshire Makes Important Changes to 2015 Reporting and Fees for General State Permit for Emergency Generators
For those owners or operators of emergency generators or fire pumps that are currently permitted under the General State Permit (GSP) for Emergency Generators, the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services (NHDES), Air Resources Division has changed the reporting and fee requirements effective immediately. NHDES has eliminated the requirement to submit an annual emission report entirely. In addition, NHDES has replaced the annual emission-based fee with a once-every-5-years GSP registration fee. Due to these changes, GSP holders do NOT need to submit the 2014 annual emission report or pay the associated emission-based fee, which has historically been due annually by April 15th.
NHDES has begun the process of reestablishing the GSP for Emergency Generators. Once the GSP and GSP registration fee are established, NHDES will be notifying General State Permit holders of the obligation to register under the new GSP and pay the new GSP registration fee. More information will be coming soon, so please revisit the NHDES website for further updates. This does NOT apply to devices covered under the temporary permit, state permit to operate or Title V operating permit programs.
NHDES anticipates that the registration process for the GSP will be easier due to the new online GSP permitting program. Nearly all current GSP holders have registered with the online program and the information pertaining to currently permitted devices is already in the system. Applicants will simply need to review the information in the system for accuracy and update contact information. This program will reduce both the time required to file a registration packet and the processing time by NHDES. The online system will also help to ensure that registration packets are submitted completely and without errors.
EPA Releases Incident Action Checklists for Utilities
Ten incident types are highlighted, including drought, earthquake, extreme cold and winter storms, extreme heat, flooding, hurricane, tornado, tsunami, volcanic activity, and wildfire. The "rip & run" style checklists were developed collaboratively with water utility managers and state agency/water association representatives as an on-the-go reference. The Incident Action Checklists complement two other EPA efforts that support response during actual emergencies. The first effort provides up-to-date response partner contact information by state and region. The second effort provides access to a number of useful weather forecasting tools through the PDF document Weather & Hydrologic Forecasting for Water Utility Incident Preparedness and Response.
First Clothes Dryers to Earn EPA’s Energy Star Label Now Available Nationwide
At least 45 models of dryers earning the Energy Star label, including Whirlpool, Maytag, Kenmore, LG, and Safemate, are at least 20% more efficient and now available at prices comparable to standard dryers.
“Dryers are one of the most common household appliances and the biggest energy users,” said US EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy. “EPA’s Energy Star certified clothes dryers offer Americans an opportunity to save energy and do their part to combat climate change. By working with industry, we are bringing innovative technology to market that’s good for the planet.”
Clothes dryers consume more energy than any other appliance in the home, and 80% of American homes have dryers. But unlike clothes washers, which have seen a 70% drop in energy use since 1990, the energy efficiency of most dryers has not improved. If all residential clothes dryers sold in the US were Energy Star certified, Americans could save $1.5 billion each year in utility costs and prevent greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) equal to the electricity use from more than 1.3 million homes.
The efficiency specifications were developed with extensive input from manufacturers, retailers, the US Department of Energy, and environmental groups. Manufacturers meet the specification requirements by incorporating advanced sensors that more effectively detect when clothes are dry and stop the dryer.
Energy Star certified dryers include gas, electric, and compact models. The Energy Star label can also be found on dryers that feature new advanced heat pump technology and are 40% more efficient than conventional models. Heat pump dryers recapture the hot air used by the dryer and pump it back into the drum. By re-using most of the heat, a heat pump dryer is more efficient and avoids the need for ducts.
To earn the Energy Star label, products must be certified by an EPA-recognized third party, based on testing in an EPA-recognized laboratory. In addition, manufacturers must participate in verification testing programs operated by recognized certification bodies.
EPA Inspections Reveal Hazardous Waste Violations at ABC Labs
EPA Region 7 conducted Compliance Evaluation Inspections at Analytical Bio-Chemistry Laboratories, Inc.’s, (ABC Labs’) two facilities in Columbia, Missouri, in April 2012. The company has agreed to pay a $19,040 civil penalty to settle allegations that it violated RCRA.
ABC Labs’ Discovery Drive facility is a contract laboratory involved in pharmaceutical and agricultural product development, while the ABC Lane facility is a contract laboratory that serves agri-chemical, pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical, and animal health industries. Both facilities are classified as large quantity generators, and as small quantity handlers of universal waste (. In addition, the facility is a used oil generator. All of these generator categories subject ABC Labs to regulation under RCRA.
According to an administrative consent agreement filed by EPA Region 7 in Lenexa, Kansas, each of ABC Labs’ facilities operated as treatment, storage, or disposal facilities without a RCRA permit by failing to comply with the generator requirements of the regulation.
Specifically, the requirements ABC Labs failed to perform include conducting weekly hazardous waste inspections, listing portions of the emergency coordinator’s contact information in the contingency plan, and training the program director in hazardous waste management procedures, among others.
By agreeing to the settlement with EPA, ABC Labs has certified that it is now in compliance with all requirements of RCRA and its implementing regulations.
Supervalu Holdings, Inc., Fined $120,000 for Stormwater Violations
Supervalu has also agreed to pay a $120,000 penalty.
According to Ed Kowalski, director of EPA’s Office of Compliance and Enforcement in Seattle, the recent action is part of a broader campaign to protect and restore the health of Puget Sound.
“Every storm sends chemicals, heavy metals, contaminated sediment and nutrients streaming directly into our waterways and Puget Sound. For the sake of the Sound, we will continue to ensure that facilities comply with the fundamental environmental responsibilities outlined in their permits.”
Among the violations documented during the inspections (at all three facilities):
- Failure to implement adequate stormwater control measures
- Failure to conduct visual or benchmark monitoring of stormwater discharges
- Failure to conduct or document required stormwater inspections
- Inadequate Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP)
- In this case, the facilities discharged stormwater to tributaries to either the Green River (Auburn) or the Thea Foss Waterway (Tacoma) which are directly connected to Puget Sound. Pollutants carried by stormwater may be harmful to aquatic life and public health.
OFS Fitel Fined $18,000 for Violating Air Pollution, Hazardous Waste, and Toxics Requirements
The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (MassDEP) assessed an $18,000 penalty to OFS Fitel, LLC, a manufacturer of fiber optic wire in Sturbridge, for violating state Air Pollution Control, Hazardous Waste, Industrial Wastewater, and Toxics Use Reduction regulations.
MassDEP personnel conducted inspections of the company's facility on Hall Road on June 26, June 27, and July 17, 2014. During the inspection, MassDEP observed 17 environmental violations. In addition, the company allowed an unlicensed employee to operate its wastewater pretreatment system and did not report using the chemical chlorine at the facility for three years.
Through a consent order signed with MassDEP, the company has agreed to pay the $18,000 penalty and bring its operations back into compliance.
"During our inspections, OFS Fitel was found to be in noncompliance with many of the environmental regulations to which it is subject," said Lee Dillard Adams, director of MassDEP's Central Regional Office in Worcester. "The company has implemented upgrades and improvements to the systems it has in place to maintain compliance."
Imperial Irrigation District Improperly Disposes of PCBs
The District must spend $543,000 to replace equipment currently containing PCBs and perform an audit of 9 inactive substations. The District, the sixth largest utility in California, providing electric power to more than 145,000 customers in the Imperial Valley and parts of Riverside County, will also pay a $379,000 civil penalty.
“Our goal is to protect public health and the environment from the risks of PCBs,” said Jared Blumenfeld, EPA’s Regional Administrator for the Pacific Southwest. “Today’s settlement means Imperial Irrigation District will be taking steps to counter the impacts of its legacy PCB contamination in several local communities.”
As part of the recent action, the District must hire an independent auditor to conduct audits of 9 inactive electricity substations located in Brawley, Calexico, Indio, Mecca, and El Centro. The audit will examine all PCB-containing equipment and conduct soil sampling at the properties. The deadline for completion of the audits is 17 months after EPA’s approval of the auditor.
The District is also required to replace 16 regulators, three transformers and three circuit breakers with non-PCB containing equipment at active facilities located throughout its service area. This project must be completed within a year.
The settlement resolves violations of the federal Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) at the Rio Vista Electricity Substation, which the District operated from 1957 until 2002. The substation, located on West River Drive in Brawley, California, was adjacent to the Phil D. Swing Elementary School, the largest elementary school in the city. In February 2002, the District closed the facility and removed all PCB electrical equipment. In 2011, an environmental assessment of the facility by the company discovered that old electrical equipment had leaked PCBs into the soil and testing found PCB concentrations as high as 363 parts per million (ppm), greater than the federal limit of 50 ppm and a violation of TSCA. As a result, the District, under EPA’s supervision, removed and properly disposed of 10,000 lb of PCB-contaminated dirt.
PCBs are man-made organic chemicals used in paints, industrial equipment, plastics, and cooling oil for electrical transformers. More than 1.5 billion lb of PCBs were manufactured in the United States before the EPA banned the production of this chemical class in 1978. Acute PCB exposure can adversely affect the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems as well as liver function. Concerns about human health and the extensive presence and lengthy persistence of PCBs in the environment led Congress to enact the TSCA in 1976.
Imperial County is a predominately Hispanic county with one of the highest unemployment rates in the nation. Over the next two years EPA is committed to making a visible difference in communities like Imperial County by reducing pollution and improving indoor air quality to improve the health and environment for local residents.
Feds, State, Settle Clean Water Violations with Harrisburg and Capital Region Water
The agreement will help protect people’s health, the two impacted waterways, and ultimately the Chesapeake Bay.
The upgrades will significantly reduce discharges of nitrogen pollution from the plant, which is currently the largest point-source of nitrogen pollution to the Susquehanna River. In addition, Capital Region Water will conduct a comprehensive assessment of existing conditions within its combined sewer system and develop a long-term control plan to curtail combined sewer overflows.
The work under the partial settlement is estimated to cost $82 million and be completed within a period of about five years. Once a long-term control plan is approved by EPA, the court agreement will need to be modified, or a new one will need to be put in place to include implementation of the plan.
“This phased approach for controlling combined sewer overflows over time includes some early action projects to reduce pollution now, while conducting further assessment and planning for long term solutions.”
The settlement, filed simultaneously with the complaint in federal court in Harrisburg by the US Department of Justice on behalf of EPA and PADEP, addresses problems with Harrisburg’s combined sewer system, which during rain events and dry weather, frequently discharges raw sewage, industrial waste and polluted stormwater into Paxton Creek and the Susquehanna River, which are part of the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. The settlement does not impose civil penalties against the City due to Harrisburg’s current financial situation.
Keeping raw sewage and contaminated stormwater out of the waters of the United States is one of EPA’s National Enforcement Initiatives. EPA is working to reduce discharges from sewer overflows by obtaining commitments from cities to implement timely, affordable solutions.
States Develop New Strategies to Reduce Nutrient Levels in Mississippi River, Gulf of Mexico
The Task Force has decided to extend the target date for shrinking the dead zone from its current average size of almost 6,000 square miles to about 2,000 square miles from 2015 to 2035. Progress has been made in certain watersheds within the region, but science shows a 45% reduction is needed in the nitrogen and phosphorus entering the Gulf of Mexico. In order to track progress and spur action, the Task Force is also aiming at a 20% reduction in nutrient loads by 2025.
High nutrient levels are one of America's costliest, most widespread, and most challenging environmental problems. Too much nitrogen and phosphorus in the water leads to large algae growth, called algal blooms. These algal blooms can severely reduce or eliminate oxygen in water, creating dead zones and harming aquatic life, and harm humans because they produce elevated toxins and bacterial growth.
Examples of actions in state nutrient reduction strategies include:
- The Illinois Fertilizer Act ensures that a $0.75/ton assessment on all bulk fertilizer sold in Illinois is allocated to research and educational programs focused on nutrient use and water quality
- Iowa’s Water Quality Initiative has four main components: outreach and education, statewide practice implementation, targeted demonstration watershed projects, and tracking and accountability
- Minnesota is providing $221 million in state funds to support a wide range of activities including development of watershed restoration and protection strategies, ground water and drinking water protection, and monitoring and assessment
The Task Force will focus on several areas in addition to the state nutrient reduction strategies, including:
- Quantitative Measures: States and federal agencies will need to predict and measure how much nutrient levels are reduced by certain actions. So at their meeting in May 2015, members will describe how tracking mechanisms, watershed monitoring, and computer modeling will be used to quantitatively measure progress, particularly by the state nutrient reduction strategies.
- Federal Programs: Federal agencies will work to integrate, strengthen, and quantify the nutrient load reductions from programs including, the USDA Regional Conservation Partnership Program, USDA Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watershed Initiative, US Fish & Wildlife Service Mississippi River Habitat Initiative and Landscape Conservation Cooperatives, and EPA Water Pollution Control Program Grants and Nonpoint Source Management Program.
- Funding: Reducing nutrient levels requires significant financial resources so Hypoxia Task Force members will identify funding needs for specific nutrient reduction actions and then better target existing resources and pursue additional funding.
- Partnerships: The Task Force aims to expand existing and forge new partnerships.
- Agriculture – Farmers have a long tradition of commitment to soil and water conservation and have been a critical part of the development of state strategies. Farm innovations and the examples set by early adopters help improve solutions and provide needed demonstration, accelerating actions that improve agricultural productivity and water quality.
- Businesses – Many businesses are actively working to reduce their environmental impacts and have lessons to share that will enable other businesses to implement similar actions. Nitrogen inhibitors and other products already help keep nutrients in the soil and deliver nutrients to plants.
- Cities and Communities – The Task Force will rely on municipal wastewater agencies and the communities they serve to improve performance of sewage treatment facilities as a component of state nutrient strategies.
- NGOs – Many non-governmental organizations share the Task Force’s goals and mission and are working on initiatives to address water quality and nutrient pollution in the region.
- Universities – Land Grant Universities have helped develop state nutrient reduction strategies and will continue playing an integral role in implementing them.
Members of the Hypoxia Task Force are the Army Corps of Engineers; US Department of Agriculture; Department of the Interior; EPA; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; and the states of Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. Tribes are represented by the National Tribal Water Council.
Louisiana Man Fined for Dumping Gasoline and Diesel From Tanker Truck
Leon Wallace was sentenced February 4, in the 18th Judicial District Court for violating Louisiana’s Environmental Quality Act. Wallace was found guilty of illegally dumping gasoline and diesel fuel behind a Port Allen video poker casino in January 2013.
Wallace was arrested in March 2013 when investigators with DEQ’s Criminal Investigation Division and the Office of Inspector General found a large area of diesel fuel and gasoline contaminated soil behind the Super Lucky Louie Casino, 1256 US 190 in Port Allen. Information received by the DEQ-Criminal Investigation Division revealed that Wallace drove a tanker truck for ACM Transportation at the time of the incident. While loading gasoline and diesel fuel into his tanker truck at Placid Refinery on the night of January 25, 2013, Wallace mistakenly mixed several hundred gallons of diesel with several thousand gallons of gasoline already in the tanker truck. In an effort to conceal his mistake from his employer, Wallace then drove to the Super Lucky Louie Casino and dumped an unknown portion of the gasoline and diesel mixture at the rear of the facility.
Wallace pleaded guilty February 4, 2015, in 18th Judicial District Court and was sentenced. In accepting Wallace’s plea, Judge J. Robin Free, 18th Judicial District Judge, ordered him to pay a $5,000 fine and reimburse the Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality in the amount of $970 for the cost of its investigation. Judge Free sentenced Wallace to two years of probation. The contaminated property has since been remediated in accordance with DEQ regulations.
“This agency is committed to finding and prosecuting people who commit this type of environmental crime,” said DEQ Secretary Peggy Hatch. “No one should think they can get away with the illegal dumping of pollutants in Louisiana.”
Apothecary Products Inc. Fined $400,000 for Selling Consumer Products that Exceed VOC Limits
The California Air Resources Board has fined Apothecary Products, Inc., a manufacturer and distributor of consumer health care products and pharmacy supplies, $400,000 for selling general-purpose cleaning products that violated California’s air quality regulations.
An ARB investigation revealed that for more than three years, Naples, Florida-based Apothecary Products sold, supplied, and offered for sale in California more than 20 different brands and types of optical glass cleaning products that exceeded a volatile organic compound content limit of 0.5% for general purpose cleaners. While each product was labeled for use as an optical cleaner—which carries no VOC limit—additional cleaning claims made on the product labels placed them into the general-purpose cleaning category which is subject to a 0.5% VOC content limit.
VOCs are regulated by the ARB because they react with other pollutants under sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a main ingredient in smog. In this case, it is estimated that more than 33 tons of excess VOCs were emitted as a result of sales to consumers.
“ARB is constantly working to ensure that products sold to consumers in California meet the standards for smog-causing chemicals,” ARB Enforcement Chief Jim Ryden said. “Companies need to understand that regulations for these chemicals in consumer products are to prevent air pollution and protect public health.”
Apothecary Products sold, supplied and offered for sale products in violation of California air quality regulations under a variety of brand names, such as Flents Wipe ’n Clear Biodegradable Lens Wipe and Wipe ’n Clear Pre-Moistened Lens Wipes.
The case was settled late last year for $400,000, with an additional $25,000 payment to be suspended for 12 months pending an effort to reformulate the product. Apothecary has relabeled the products to indicate they are only to be used to clean optical glass, a use exempted from VOC limits. The additional payment would be triggered if the company is unsuccessful at reformulating the product so it complies with the VOC limit for general-purpose cleaners.
Apothecary also agreed not to sell, supply, or offer for sale for use in California any consumer product in violation of ARB air quality regulations. All fines are paid to the California Air Pollution Control Fund, which provides funding for projects and research to improve California’s air quality.
Premier Performance Fined $500,000 for Offering Illegal Aftermarket Parts for Sale in California
The California Air Resources Board recently announced that Premier Performance, LLC, of Rexburg, Idaho, has agreed to a settlement totaling $515,000 to resolve violations of the California Health and Safety Code related to the sales of illegal aftermarket performance parts in California.
Air Resources Board investigators discovered that Premier, a large warehouse distributor of aftermarket and performance automotive parts, sold modifications for pollution controlled vehicles that had not been approved for use by the ARB, in violation of California’s anti-tampering laws.
California law prohibits the marketing or sales of parts that modify emissions control systems of vehicles unless they undergo a formal evaluation of their impact on the emissions control capabilities of the vehicles they were intended for. “Maintaining the integrity of the emissions control systems of vehicles is an important part of California’s clean air efforts,” said ARB Enforcement Chief James Ryden. “We take seriously the obligation to show that products do not reduce the effectiveness of emissions controls prior to their sale in California.”
California’s emission control system anti-tampering laws include provisions to allow manufacturers to sell aftermarket performance parts once those parts undergo a comprehensive engineering evaluation that ensures that the modifications do not cause excess emissions. Parts successfully completing this process receive an Executive Order exemption that allows their sale and installation on pollution controlled vehicles.
Premier cooperated with the ARB investigation and promptly halted sales of non-compliant parts in California. The penalty of $386,000 will be paid to the California Air Pollution Control Fund, which supports efforts to decrease air pollution through education and the adoption of cleaner technologies. The remaining $129,000 will go to the Statewide School Bus and Diesel Emission Reduction Supplemental Environmental Project administered by the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District. The project is designed to retrofit or replace old, dirty diesel school buses operating in California.
Modified vehicles that no longer meet California's emission control requirements pose a significant health threat to California residents. They create higher amounts of smog-forming pollutants, which can then exacerbate respiratory ailments and negatively affect other health conditions such as shortness of breath, headaches, birth defects, cancer, or damage to internal organs.
DEQ Fines Oregon Health and Science University for Hazardous Waste Violations
The facility is located at 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road in Portland. Oregon Health and Science University did not appeal the penalty.
DEQ issued this penalty because hazardous wastes must be properly identified, managed, and disposed in order to protect the environment, employees, and the public. DEQ is especially concerned by the number of violations and the number of waste streams involved in the violations.
In determining the penalty amount, DEQ considered the facility’s efforts to correct the violations by cleaning up its 90-day accumulation storage area and properly labeling hazardous waste.
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Trivia Question of the Week
Which US President gave the first speech to congress about climate change?
a) Johnson
b) Carter
c) Clinton
d) Nixon
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